cognition cannot be altered by legislation (Betts, 1978, p. 83). Intelligence is all about finding. Nature of intelligence Levels of intelligence. Following the passage of the PATRIOT Act, the attorney general also instructed all U.S. attorneys to review intelligence files to discover whether there was a basis for bringing criminal charges against the subjects of intelligence investigations. We are now in an age in which our primary adversary is easy to kill, but hard to find (Hayden, 2007). Today, on the other hand, the situation is reversed. These thinkers, in what has been termed the orthodox school, are the intellectual heirs of earlier literature that examined the reasons why conventional military surprise attacks almost always succeed (e.g., Wohlstetter, 1962; Handel, 1977; Betts, 1978; for discussion of the orthodox school, see Honig, 2008). Competitive Intelligence: The process of collecting and analyzing information about competitors' strengths and weaknesses in a legal and ethical manner to enhance business decision-making . With a conventional foe, the enemys intent is the question. Cole, that it was finally able to share with intelligence agencies after the passage of the PATRIOT Act. Ian Lesser, for example, argued (Lesser et al., 1999) that the increasing reliance by terrorists on modern information technology would introduce new possibilities for monitoring and surveillance. The link was not copied. 3, 2016. It is a specialized information product that. Staying flexible in an adaptive world. Often, the business of intelligence is surrounded in myth that is created by the production spy novels and movies such as James Bond. Gill, P., & Phythian, M. (2006). We will now move on to the second part of the essay to analyse the need of such services in an international arena. Before the attacks of September 11th, many provisions of federal law had been interpreted to limit sharply the ability of intelligence investigators to communicate with federal law enforcement officials as well as the ability of federal law-enforcement officers to share terrorism-related information with members of the intelligence community. Five key factors make up the mission of security threat group intelligence gathering operations in a correctional setting: Informed decision-making: The capacity for informed decision-making is vital in managing security threat groups or individual inmates who have advanced . In addition, coordination between intelligence and law enforcement is not easy, in large part because the cultures of the two communities are very different and because of real and perceived legal separations between domestic and international intelligence activities (Treverton, 2003; Waxman, 2009). In a comment written before 9/11 but often cited since those attacks as an illustration of how the CIA has been too risk-averse and bureaucratic, Reuel Marc Gerecht (2001) quotes a CIA case officer as saying: Operations that include diarrhea as a way of life dont happen (p. 40). During the Cold War the enemys forces, such as troop formations, tanks, and ballistic missile silos, were relatively easy to find, but hard to kill. As the years since the attacks of 9/11 have passed, there has developed within some members of the intelligence studies community a belief that the subject of terrorism has been sufficiently covered in the literature and it is time to focus on other challenges (Johnson & Shelton, 2013). Therefore, the costs of failure can be very high, whether it is in the sense that intelligence does not provide adequate forewarning of some surprise attack, as on 9/11 or 7/7, warns us of a threat that does not actually exist, as in the case of Iraqs WMD, or threatens the integrity of the political process (Lefebvre, 2003). Discretion and Confusion in the Intelligence Community. This view sees the surprise aspect of the attack as having been caused largely by preventable analytical and communications failures on the part of the intelligence community and policy makers who lacked the imagination to connect the dots (as the 9/11 Commission famously argued) and to make sense of the information that had been available (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004, p. 408). Some authors see covert action as essential to intelligence (Russel, 2007, p. 281), while some characterized it as an additional activity, somewhat separate from the main business of intelligence. One other option could be suggested that the USA can be the first transnational security state or a world policeman as it already sees itself. Some thinkers argue that the new threats since 9/11, combined with changes in information technology and in the nature of warfare, require nothing less than a revolution in intelligence affairs (Barger, 2005; see also Lahneman, 2007). As their name suggests, they often deliver various services to the government and increasingly this involves active efforts to shape the world as well as merely reporting about it (Lowenthal, 2002, p. 8). (Similar typologies are provided in Parker & Stern [2005], and Copeland [2007].) I hope these bills are swiftly enacted into law. London: Routledge. Stella Rimington, the former head of Britains domestic intelligence organization MI5, writes that terrorism intelligence is not developed by spies overseas as often as one may expect: My own experience is that effective counter-terrorism frequently begins closer to home and may appear a lot more mundane (2005, p. 30). Air & Space Smithsonian. Intelligence in the Cold War. Several former CIA operations officers have also written about the difficulty terrorism poses for American human intelligence operatives. Getting all of the information you need to make a decision will always lead to the best outcome. Although terrorism is not the only important mission for intelligence services in the 21st century, it is widely considered to be the top priority for Western intelligence services. It offers you more than just a quick database of people who you may wish to contact. March 7, 2022. Cyber caused major changes within the intelligence process, especially in gathering information. (2003). Fortunately, with the help of Congress, we have made great progress in remedying the deficiencies in information sharing that existed before September 11th. Intelligence and National Security , 19 (2), 170-184. Moreover, an international terrorist need not be affiliated with a terrorist organization to cause a significant loss of American lives; a single foreign terrorist with a chemical, biological, or radiological weapon is capable of inflicting tremendous damage on this country, and FISA should be amended to reflect this reality. New York: Basic Book, Inc. Lefebvre, S. (2003). Because traditional intelligence threat assessments are more difficult to produce, many intelligence and security officials have begun to use vulnerability based assessments that start by identifying ones own vulnerabilities and then develop scenarios the enemy may follow. It produces more intelligence but also has a vast appetite. The primary message of this pre-9/11 literature was, in the words of terrorism expert Bruce Hoffman, that the importance of intelligence to anticipate, pre-empt, and respond is paramount (Hoffman, 1996, p. 219). This literature can be divided into three schools of thought, each of which offers a distinct analysis of what has gone wrong in the past and what should be done in the future. (A notable exception to this gap is Marrin [2004].). While most of the literature on intelligence and terrorism since 9/11 has focused on the threat from al-Qaeda and other Islamist groups such as ISIL (Pillar, 2014; Bouzis, 2015), some authors look at other terrorist problems. A piece of information is like a piece of a puzzle. Paul Pillar, for example, argues that the U.S. intelligence community has been working hard on the problem of international terrorism since at least 1986, when the CIAs Counterterrorist Center was established. Classic modes of collection, including official cover, are crucial to detect and counter state sponsorship of terrorism and to work with foreign agencies engaged in domestic intelligence and law enforcement at the local level (p. 414). Human intelligence is not seen as the complete answer to the problem of terrorism, of course, and some authors argue that other sources can be very useful, such as signals intelligence (Aid, 2003), or open source intelligence (Sloan, 2006; Lewis & Chenoweth, 2007). They claim that the organization is stepping up its intelligence gathering. Competitive intelligence's information advantage can be broadly categorized up further into 4 more advantages, which are as follows: Predicting Your Competitors' Moves Most businesses use competitive intelligence largely to be able to predict the moves of their competitors and stay ahead of them. In the United States, significant steps have been taken since 9/11: (a) a proliferation of Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs) and state and local intelligence fusion centers, (b) the posting of local intelligence officials alongside national-level counterparts at the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), and (c) the re-emergence of robust police intelligence operations in New York City and elsewhere (Sullivan & Wirtz, 2008; Svendsen, 2012; Apuzzo & Goldman, 2013; Dahl, 2014b). Michael Morell was the Acting Director and Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency from 2010 to 2013 and a 33-year veteran of the Agency. The controversial case of 2003 Iraqi WMD perfectly resembles how intelligence was used explicitly as part of an attempt by governments to justify and gain support for their policies as it was discussed in one of the previous chapters. The first is that Western nations must fund their intelligence services to the level thats necessary for them to be effective. Richard Russell argues that the CIA needs to break its umbilical cord to U.S. diplomatic facilities overseas as its primary infrastructure for human intelligence collection. Instead of relying almost completely on case officers based under diplomatic cover at embassies, he believes, U.S. intelligence must substantially increase its use of officers under nonofficial coverknown as NOCs (Russell, 2004, p. 61; see also Russell, 2007b; Berkowitz, 2002b). Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). But much of the advice offered may be difficult to put in practice, such as the call for the intelligence community to become as agile and as innovative as its terrorist adversary (Harris, 2002, p. 13). Texas Review of Law and Politics. No, for those kinds of issues, intelligence, and in particular the collection of information that our adversaries dont want us to know, is an absolutely necessity for senior leaders. Much of this literature focuses on the analysis and collection of information and on how it is disseminated to decision makers and other customers. Intelligence reformists tend to agree with the orthodox school that intelligence warnings are usually available prior to major failures. Jan 20, 2021 Commentary A solid functioning ILP approach to data and information gathering and analysis allows police forces to assess a greater number of crime-related . This in turn produces intelligence on new targets that can be exploited and analyzed, and so on. . In this current fiscal year, which ends on 30 September 2016, the US IC is operating on only $67.9 billiona 15% decline in only six years in a world thats placing more demands on intelligence than it did in 2010. But more research is needed into the broader theoretical similarities and differences between the problem of surprise attack from terrorism today, and into the challenges posed for intelligence by conventional attack or by other types of surprises. It must also be noted that information and intelligence are two different terms: the latter is produced by a process of analysis or evaluation of the former (Odom, 2008, p. 323). Reformists believe that the likelihood of future failures can be reduced by intelligence reforms along lines that have been proposed for the past 50 yearswhich often stress organizational changeand by efforts to ensure that decision makers take heed of intelligence warnings. If knowledge is power it can also be deduced that intelligence is a form of power itself. Strengthen the IC's statutory obligation to keep Congress "fully and currently informed" 2. This means that investigations of lone-wolf terrorists now must proceed under the stricter standards and shorter time periods for investigating ordinary crimes set forth in Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968.. James Wirtz puts the puzzle this way: Even accounting for hindsight, it is difficult to understand how the government, the public, and the scholarly community all failed to respond to the threat posed by al Qaeda, in a way that is eerily similar to the failures that preceded Pearl Harbor (Wirtz, 2006, p. 56). The full text of this document can be found through the link below: Mugavero, Roberto; Benolli, Federico; Sabato, Valentina. See Humanitarian Law Project v. United States Department of Justice, No. Achieving all-source fusion in the Intelligence Community. Several authors view human intelligence (HUMINT) as the most important factor in countering terrorism. A World of Secrets: The Uses and Limits of Intelligence. Major international discontent and debates, particularly in the USA and UK, arose after the failure to find the WMD that was the core justification for the invasion. Specifically, it is a process which derives data from prospective clients in real-time, and through multiple different channels and platforms. Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century. Understanding Intelligence in the Twenty-First Century: Journey in Shadows. Such a presumption is warranted because of the unparalleled magnitude of the danger to the United States and its people posed by acts of terrorism, and because terrorism is typically engaged in by groupsmany with international connectionsthat are often in a position to help their members flee or go into hiding. (2005). Although there continues to be agreement that greater information sharing is needed within the intelligence and counterterrorism communities, there is a growing belief that an equally important problem is that of having too much information. Essentially, the US intelligence community has limited itself by placing too much emphasis on secrecy and not enough on efficiency. Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, A RAND Analysis Tool for Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance, Imagery/Geospatial Intelligence (IMINT/GEOINT), Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT), FBI-- Intelligence Collection Disciplines (INTs), Challenges of Multi-Source Data and Information New Era, Framework for Optimizing Intelligence Collection Requirements, Intelligence Collection versus Investigation, Multiple Intelligence Disciplines Form a Clearer Picture, The Protect America Act of 2007: A Framework for Improving Intelligence Collection in the War on Terror, Rethinking Five Eyes Security Intelligence Collection Policies and Practice Post Snowden, A Review of Security and Privacy Concerns in Digital Intelligence Collection, The Role of Information in Identifying, Investing, and Monitoring Crises. He argues that greater attention should be paid to the need for U.S. intelligence agencies to establish cooperative international relationships, especially bilateral agreements that may take advantage of another countrys comparative intelligence advantage in a particular geographic region or against a certain target. Intelligence and National Security , 19 (3), 467-489. They argue that if anyone is to be held accountable for disasters such as 9/11, it should be the policy makers for having failed to take heed of the intelligence warnings they were provided (Marrin, 2011). Business is that good. Your direct competitors within your industry are just part of the intelligence you should gather to understand your market. In particular, I would like to focus this morning on three of these proposals that I believe are particularly important. Scholars studying the intersection of intelligence and terrorism are quite aware of the importance of producing policy-relevant work. Following the enactment of the PATRIOT Act, the Department of Justice took a number of steps to implement the aforementioned provisions and fully realize the potential of increased coordination and information sharing between intelligence officers and law enforcement officers. Knowing what terrorists may do depends largely on human sourcesundercover agents and informants. Section 218 also contributed to the capture and indictment in New Jersey of Hemant Lekhani, the arms dealer charged with attempting to sell shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles to terrorists for use against American targets. Sales intelligence revolves around the concept of pooling data about the prospect. At the beginning this was narrowed to the negotiation of transnational sharing agreements; however, the 9/11 events raised a discussion of how intelligence could support multilateral peacekeeping with the involvement of institutions such as the UN (Herman, 2001, p. 21). Some, especially from within the intelligence community, have argued that the attacks were not the result of an intelligence failure. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. Additionally, there are discussions as to the possibility of organizing intelligence at a transnational level. Global Intelligence: The Worlds Secret Services Today. It is now obvious that the task to define intelligence and its importance is not an easy one; therefore, the final notion will be presented at the end of this essay. And section 905 of the PATRIOT Act requires that the attorney general, subject to certain exceptions, disclose to the director of central intelligence foreign intelligence acquired by the Department of Justice in the course of a criminal investigation. 14-29). Although not all scholars and experts fit neatly into this model, these three schools help explain the different approaches taken in the literature. 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